Skeletal, Muscular & Articular Systems

Skeletal, Articular and Muscular Systems charitable contour & Physiology Assignment 6 A short study of the human bodies skeletal, muscular and marijuana cigargontte types. confine delegate 12 line 23 trade union case 3a8 labour 3b0 line 4a10 Task 5a10 Task 6a11 Task 6b14 References16 Pictures/ intents16 Task 1 Task 1A A patient with a study mineral density T-score of -2. 7 would be suffering from osteoporosis. Normal BMD, T-score -1 SD Osteopenia, T-score between -1 & -2. 5 SD Osteoporosis, T-score -2. SD Severe Osteoporosis, T-score -2. 5 SD with associated fractures. 1 Task 1B Key internal secretions associated with bone puzzle outation in men/women atomic number 18 PTH (parathyroid hormone) produced by the parathyroid glands, and Calcitonin produced by C-cells. In children, HGH is measurable and is most heterogeneous in epiphyseal plate occupation in adolescents the sex hormones testosterone and oestrogen play an important role in bone growth, growth hormone (HGH) is modulated by the activity of the thyroid hormones, ensuring that the physical body has proper proportions as it is growing.Later in adolescence, the sex hormones testosterone and oestrogen induce epiphyseal plate mop up in the long swot an excess of growth hormone during this maturation phase foot lead to gigantism, while a deficiency of HGH and/or the thyroid hormones would produce dwarfism. Low blood trains of ionic calcium get out stimulate the release of PTH in turn stimulating osteoclasts to resorb bone and thus releasing more calcium to the blood. Osteoclasts bequeath break pop out both old and new bone matrices, osteoid escapes assimilation due to its neglect of calcium salts.Read Renal System Physiology PhysioexRising levels of blood calcium impart end the stimulus of PTH, declining levels of PTH will reverse these effects ca exploitation the level of blood Ca2+ to fall, calcitonin that if has a negligible effect on calcium homeostasis in humans. (Mari eb & Hoehn, 2010, pp. 185-86) Task 1C The major supplements used to help sufferers of osteoporosis ar calcium and vitamin D, aim for at least 700mg of calcium from food/ drunkenness intake when using calcium and vitamin D to help osteoporosis because a planning presc clapperclawed by a doctor should be sought.Most over the counter calcium/vitamin D supplements do not contain the right amount and ratio of calcium/vitamin D, to help treat osteoporosis a formulation containing 1. 2g of calcium and 800iu of vitamin D2 should be taken. (NHS , 2011) Other level-headed dietary sources of calcium be small fish (with bones sardines/pilchards), low-fat dairy products and dark green silky-leafed vegetables (broccoli/cabbage/okra) as ar tofu (soya) and nuts. (NHS, 2011) Good dietary sources of vitamin D include all oily fish, eggs fortified spreads and liver.It is withal important to get the appropriate amount of sunlight, as the UVB rays penetrate skin where they be converted into pre-vitamin D3 by cutaneous 7-dehydrocholesterol. Aim for at least 5-30 transactions per day of UVB during the hours of 10am to 3pm, to the legs face back and arms for sufficient vitamin D toil cloud cover and darker skin tones will reduce the available UVB. (USA. Gov, 2011) Task 1D High furbish up sports, such as running fish readying walking aerobic exercise and squash ar all good for increasing BMD, low impact sports such as swimming and pass have no positive effect on BMD.Exercise regimes should be undertaken at least twice per week, preferably three time p/w of 30 minutes or more, and of course should be supervised by a qualified individual. The level of intensity should be low at the start of the regimen, increasing the number of repetitions and/or burthen over time. many(prenominal) BMD gains achieved would be lost if the exercise regime is stopped, and thus regular personal contact is important to help foster a positive amiable attitude. (Todd & Robinson, 2003 )Individuals suffering from osteoporosis should be c beful when undertaking vigorous high impact exercise, due to the weakness of the skeletal system most importantly, an active modus vivendi coupled with regular exercise should be followed to help combat osteoporosis in advancing age. Task 2 Task 2A Axial Skeleton cardinal bones separated to form three regions (skull, vertebral column & pecs cage) make up the bodily structure of the axial skeleton. The parts of the axial skeleton form the longitudinal axis of the body, protect the brain/spinal anaesthesia cord and support the neck/head/ bole.The skull formed of the cranial and seventh cranial nerve bones is an exceptionally complex bony structure the skull serves as a deepen for the frail brain, and has connection positions for the head/neck tendons. The vertebral column comprises of 26 asymmetrical bones connected to form a curved fictile structure that supports the trunk extending from the skull to the pelvis the ve rtebral column transmits weight to the put down limbs. Providing attachment points for the sinews of the neck/back and for the ribs, it also acts as protection for the spinal column.The thorax, more commonly known as the boob consists of thoracic vertebrae ribs sternum and costal cartilages that secure the ribs onto the sternum. Forming a protective cage around live organs, the thorax has a rough cone shape that is quite con positioningrable the thorax also supports the shoulder girdles upper berth limbs and digests the sinews of the back/neck/shoulders and chest with connection points. (Marieb & Hoehn, 2010, pp. 199,216) Task 2A appendicular Skeleton The appendicular skeleton is make up of the limbs and their girdles, the appendicular skeleton is appended to the axial skeleton hence the recognise appendicular.The upper limbs attached via a yoke worry girdle (pectoral) to the trunk of the body and the decline limbs secured by the pelvic girdle. The bones of the upper/ a base limbs have different functionalities and mobility, scarcely still have the same essential plane that the limbs are constituted of three key divisions linked via alterable joints. The appendicular skeletal structure allows us movement such as taking a step, picking up a cup or kicking a ball. The pectoral girdle is comprised of an anterior clavicle and a posterior scapula the shoulders formed from the associated muscles and the paired pectoral girdles.Attaching the upper limbs to the axial skeleton, the pectoral girdles also certify points of attachment for muscles that are responsible for lamentable the upper limbs mobility is high as these girdles are very light. The upper limbs form from 30 bones, each bone described locally as a bone of the hand, arm or forearm the arm is considered in an anatomical reference sense to be the upper limb between the shoulder and elbow. The lower limbs attach to the axial skeleton via the pelvic girdle and diffuse the weight of the upper bo dy to the lower limbs, and provide support for the pelvic nonrational organs.Some of the strongest ligaments in the body attach the pelvic girdle to the axial skeleton, the pelvic girdle is very stable but lacks the mobility of the pectoral girdle carrying the weight of the body the lower limbs are subject to astonishing push ups. Compared to the bones of the upper limbs, the bones of the lower limbs are much thicker and stronger. (Marieb & Hoehn, 2010, pp. 223,233,237) Task 2b Axial/Appendicular Attachments The thoracic cage is lissomly attached to the pectoral girdle, not like the pelvic girdle that is affixed to the axial skeleton by some incredible strong ligaments, some of the strongest in the body.The sockets of the pelvic girdle are deep and cuplike, the femur head is secured firmly in place in these sockets, the pectoral girdle is far more moveable but the pelvic girdle is much more table. The shoulders are formed from the paired pectoral girdles and their associated mu scles, a girdle usually refers to a belt like structure that encircles the body, thus far in the case of the pectoral girdles this does not satisfy the verbalise description. The medial end of each clavicle is joined anteriorly to the sternum and the distal ends encounter the scapulae askantly.The scapulae do not perfect the girdle posteriorly, as their medial rims fail to join to each other or to the axial skeleton, however the scapulae attach to the thorax and the vertebral column via muscles that garb their exteriors. The upper limbs are attached to the axial skeleton via the pectoral girdles and also provide connection points for the upper limb muscles. The girdles are light and this allows a license of movement that is not accomplished elsewhere in the body, as only the clavicle bettingens to the axial skeleton, this allows the scapulae to move easily a hybridization the thorax.The hip joint being a ball and socket joint has a good work of motion however, the shoulder ha s a wider range of motion. The joints strong ligaments limit movements, but do occur in all planes. Formed from the articulation of the femurs global head and the greatly cupped acetabulum of the hipbone is the hip joint. A airman lip of fibrocartilage (Acetabulor labrum) enhances the depth of the acetabulum the diameter of the labrum is smaller than the head of the femur making for a snug fit of these articular surfaces dislocations of the hip are a rare incident.Extending from the brim of the acetabulum up to the stem of the femur, the arduous articular casing wholly surrounds the joint there are several(prenominal) robust ligaments that reinforce the hip joint capsule. These ligaments include the iliofemoral ligament, an anteriorly situated v-shaped ligament, and the pubofemoral, which is a triangular condensing of the lesser fragment of the capsule, and the ischiofemoral ligament that is a verticillate posterior ligament. On either side of the pelvic girdle, the iliolumbar ligament connects the pelvis and vertebral columns. (Marieb & Hoehn, 2010, pp. 225-226,233,267) Ligaments of the pelvic girdle Iliolumbar ligament ? Anterior Sacroiliac ligament ? Sacrospinus ligament ? Sacrotuberous ligament ? Pubofemoral ligament ? Iliofemoral ligament ? Ischiofemoral ligament ? Sacroiliac ligament ? Ischiofemoral ligament ? Ligamentum teres Ligaments of the thoracic girdle ? capsular ligament ? Coracoclavicular ligament ? Costoclavicular ligament ? Coracohumeral ligament ? Glenohumeral ligament Task 2c Lordosis, Kyphosis, Scoliosis Cervical and lumbar secondary curvatures being convex anteriorly, are associated with a Childs development, this is a result of reshaping of the intervertebral discs and not from modification of the vertebrae.The cervical curvature being present at birth does not conk out distinct until 3 months when the baby will start to raise its head, whereas the lumbar curvature will develop when the baby begins to walk. During the early childho od days the vertebral problems of scoliosis or lordosis may appear as rapid growth of the long bones stretches muscles, lordosis is most often present during preschool years but is more often than not remedied when the abdominal muscle strengthen. This firming up tilts forward the pelvis and the thorax widens, thus developing the phalanx posture in adolescence.At the onset of old-age many parts of the skeleton are affected, principally the spine the discs thin and loose elasticity and hydration resulting in a probable rise in disc herniation, at 55 years old its not uncommon to have a disadvantage of up to several centimetres in stature. Osteoporosis faeces produce come on cut of the spine as can kyphosis, in the elderly this is referred to as a dowagers hump, with age the thorax develops rigidity due to ossification of the costal cartilage, thus resulting in shallow breathing from a loss of rib cage elasticity.Abnormal spine curvatures, of which some are congenital and some resulting from muscle weakness, disease and bad posture. In the thoracic region of the spine, an abnormal lateral curvature is referred to as scoliosis (twisted disease) most often presenting during adolescence and more common in girls. Scoliosis can also be a result of muscle paralysis, odds-on lower limbs (length) or severe abnormal vertebra structure, non-functioning muscles on one side of the spine will cause the muscles of the opposite side to exert an un irrelevant pull forcing the spine into a misaligned position.Body braces and/or surgery are used to treat scoliosis during childhood and thus preventing a permanent deformity. Scoliosis can also cause breathing difficulties, due to the nature of the disease a compressed lung in not unusual. Kyphosis, often referred to as hunchback, is a thoracic curvature that is dorsally exaggerated very common due to osteoporosis in elderly people and can also reflect rickets, osteomalacia or terabyte of the spine.An accentuated curvature of the lumbar vertebrae is called Lordosis (swayback), this too can be caused by spinal tuberculosis or osteomalacia. Lordosis can also be caused in a temporary form by carrying a unplumbed frontal load, a pregnant woman being one example. These individuals will usually pushback their shoulders in order to preserve their centre of gravity, this of course emphasises the lumbar arch. (Marieb & Hoehn, 2010, pp. 217,243-244) Task 3a Structural Class Structural Types Type of Mobility Characteristics Fibrous3 Articulating bones joined by Sutures (Short Fibres) Child/Limited fibrous connective weave. Adult/Synarthrosis Syndesmosis (Longer Fibres) Amphiarthrosis/ unshakable Gomphosis (Periodontal Ligament) Immobile Cartilaginous4 Synchondrosis (Hyaline Cartilage) Immobile Articulating bones joined by fibrocartilage or clear cartilage. Symphysis (Fibrocartilage) Slight Movement Synovial5 Joint capsule containing synovial Plane Nonaxial tissue layer an d synovial fluid. Hinge Uniaxial Pivot Atlantoaxial Condyloid Biaxial Saddle Biaxial screwball & Socket Multiaxial Task 4a Characteristic Skeletal Cardiac Smooth Attached to bones, facial muscle & skin. Walls of the heart. Single unit muscle in walls of hollow perspective visceral organs (other than the heart) & multiunit muscle in intrinsic eye muscles, airways & heroic arteries. Single, very long, cylindrical, Branching chains of cells uni-Single, fusiform, uninucleate no Shape and port multinucleate cells with obvious or binucleate striations. striations. striations. Epimysium, perimysium and endomysium. Endomysium attached to fibrous Endomysium. connecter Tissue components skeleton of heart. Voluntary via axon terminals of the unwilling, intrinsic system Involuntary autonomic nerves hormones, Regulation of condensate somatic nervous system. canon also autonomic local chemicals stretch. nervous system controls hormones st retch. Slow to fast Slow Very silent Speed of contraction No Yes Yes, in single unit muscle Rhythmic contraction Task 5a The smorgasbord of muscles falls into four purposeful groups prime movers (agonists), obstructionists, synergists and fixators.A prime mover or agonist is a muscle that has the chief responsibility of producing an explicit undertaking, for representative the biceps brachii is the fleshy muscle of the anterior arm that is the agonist of elbow fold. An antagonist is a muscle that opposes the movements of agonists, an active agonist will result in a stretched or relaxed antagonist however, antagonists usually help to regulate movement of the agonist with a slight tightening to provide resistance to slow or stop movement as not to overshoot the mark. Agonists and antagonists are located opposite each other on the joint of which they act, antagonists can also work as agonists and one example of this is the biceps brachii causing flexion of the forearm that is antagonised by the triceps brachii, the agonist for forearm extension.In supplement to the agonists and antagonists, the majority of muscle movements also involve synergists, synergists work alongside agonists to add extra force to movements or they work to reduce detrimental movements that can arise when the agonists move. (Marieb & Hoehn, 2010, p. 321) Task 5b Elbow Flexion Elbow Extension Pronation Supination Biceps brachii (Prime mover) Triceps brachii (Prime mover) Pronator teres Biceps brachii Brachialis (Prime mover) Anconeus Pronator quadratus (Prime mover) Supinator Pronator teres (Weak) Brachioradialis Task 5c Biceps brachii, Brachialis, Brachioradialis Task 5d Triceps brachii, Anconeus Task 5e Triceps brachii, Anconeus Task 5f Biceps brachii, Brachialis, Brachioradialis Task 6a Contraction refers to the activation of myosin cross bridges, these bridges are the force generating sites when the tension is generated then contracting occurs done the cross bridges of the thin strings, this force must surpass forces opposed to shortening this then pulls filaments toward the m-line. When tension declines and the cross bridges inactivate, then contraction ends thus inducing relaxation in the muscle fibre.In the sliding filament model of contraction, thin filaments will slide past thick filaments, and as a result, the actin6 and myosin7 strands will overlap to a openhandedr gradation. Relaxed muscle fibres only have thick and thin fibres overlapping at the tips of the a-bonds, stimulation of the muscles fibres by the nervous system activates the myosin heads of the thick filaments to clasp onto the myosin fastening position on the actin of the thin filaments, and this process begins sliding. 8 In the course of contraction, these cross bridge connections are forced/broken numerous times, the attachments act like miniscule ratchets in order to create pressure and thus impel the thin filaments further toward the sarcomeres centre.This contraction event occurs concurrently throughout all sarcomeres in a cell shortening the muscle cell, it should be noted as the thin filaments slide towards the centre the z-disc to which they are attached to will be pulled toward the m-line. 9 In an overall look at contraction, the muscle cell contracts as do the i-bonds and the distance between consecutive z-discs is reduced and the h-zones vanish, moving the contiguous a-bonds imminent together however, they do not modification in length. (Marieb & Hoehn, 2010, p. 284) Task 6b traverse Phosphorylation The demand for adenosine triphosphate rises as we begin vigorous exercise, within a few contractions stored ATP is consumed, creatine phosphate is then used to egenerate ATP and this process is ongoing while the metabolic pathways acclimatize to the bodies demand for change magnitude ATP. Pairing CP with ADP results in an almost instantaneous energy transfer, and a phosphate group to form ATP from the CP to ADP. Two to three times as much CP as ATP is stored in muscle cells, the CP-ADP feedback is implausibly efficient and the volume of ATP in muscle cells does not change by much during the preliminary contraction phase. Maximum muscle reason can be provided for 14-16 seconds using stored CP and ATP, this is roughly long abounding to glorify muscle for a 100-metre surge this reaction is reversible and CP resources are refilled during bide periods. 10 (Marieb & Hoehn, 2010, pp. 298-99) anaerobiotic PathwayMore ATP is engendered by catabolism as stored ATP and CP are expended this catabolism of glucose is through the blood or from glycogen stored in muscle, glycolysis is the chess opening phase of glucose breakdown, glycolysis occurs in both the presence and absence of group O however, it does not use oxygen and is therefore anaerobic. Glucose is destroyed to form two pyruvates during glycolysis, this releases enough energy to form some ATP (two ATP per glucose) usually, pyruvate manufactured would then enter the mitochondria and reacting with oxygen would provide even more ATP using the aerobic pathway. Vigorous muscle contraction at about 70% causes the bulging muscles to compress blood vessels, thus impairing blood flow and oxygen delivery.During these anaerobic conditions, the majority of pyruvate produced is transformed into lactic acid, this process is referred to anaerobic glycolysis. Anaerobic glycolysis yields around 5% of the ATP produced via the aerobic pathway from each glucose molecule, however it produces ATP about 2. 5 times faster than the aerobic pathway. 11 (Marieb & Hoehn, 2010, pp. 298-99) aerobiotic Pathway Ninety-five percent of ATP used for muscle activity during moderate exercise and rest is produced via the aerobic respiration pathway. Occurring in the mitochondria, aerobic respiration requires oxygen and encompasses a series of chemical reactions. During these reactions, the links of go off molecules are destroyed liberating energy for ATP production.Glucose i s broken down utterly to yield water, CO2 and great quantities of ATP, diffusing out of muscle tissue into the blood the lungs remove CO2. With the onset of exercise, glycogen stored in the muscles provides a large amount of the fuel, briefly, after this circulating glucose, pyruvate and free fatty acids are the primary(prenominal) source of fuel, roughly 30 minutes after this fatty acids will be the main energy source. Aerobic glycolysis provides a great deal of ATP (32), but is slow due to its numerous steps it also requires a constant supply of oxygen and nutrients to continue. 12 (Marieb & Hoehn, 2010, pp. 298-99) pic References Marieb, E. N. & Hoehn, K. , 2010. Bones and Skeletal Tissue. In A. Wagner, ed. gentleman Anatomy & Physiology. eighth ed. San Francisco Pearson International Ltd. pp. 185-86. Marieb, E. N. & Hoehn, K. , 2010. Bones and Skeletal tissue. In A. Wagner, ed. human beings Anatomy & Physiology. 8th ed. San Francisco Pearson International Ltd. pp. 199,216. Ma rieb, E. N. & Hoehn, K. , 2010. Bones and Skeletal Tissue. In A. Wagner, ed. human Anatomy & Physiology. 8th ed. San Francisco Pearson International Ltd. pp. 223,233,237. Marieb, E. N. & Hoehn, K. , 2010. Covering, Support and Movement of the Body. In A. Wagner, ed. Human Anatomy and Physiology. 8th ed. San Francisco Pearson International Ltd. p. 284. Marieb, E. N. & Hoehn, K. , 2010.Covering, Support and Movement of the Body. In A. Wagner, ed. Human Anatomy & Physiology. 8th ed. San Francisco Pearson International Ltd. pp. 225-226,233,267. Marieb, E. N. & Hoehn, K. , 2010. Muscles and Muscle Tissue. In A. Wagner, ed. Human Anatomy and Physiology. 8th ed. San Francisco Pearson International Ltd. pp. 298-99. Marieb, E. N. & Hoehn, K. , 2010. The Muscular System. In A. Wagner, ed. Human Anatomy & Physiology. 8th ed. San Francisco Pearson International Ltd. p. 321. Marieb, E. N. & Hoehn, K. , 2010. The Vertebral Column. In A. Wagner, ed. Human Anatomy & Physiology. 8th ed. San Francis co Pearson International. pp. 217, 243-244. NHS , 2011.Osteoporosis Treatment. Online for sale at HYPERLINK http//www. nhs. uk/Conditions/Osteoporosis/Pages/Treatment. aspx http//www. nhs. uk/Conditions/Osteoporosis/Pages/Treatment. aspx Accessed 13 whitethorn 2011. NHS, 2011. Vitamins and Minerals Calcium. Online Available at HYPERLINK http//www. nhs. uk/Conditions/vitamins-minerals/Pages/Calcium. aspx http//www. nhs. uk/Conditions/vitamins-minerals/Pages/Calcium. aspx Accessed 13 May 2011. Todd, J. A. & Robinson, R. J. , 2003. Osteoporosis and Exercise. Postgrad Medical Journal, 4(79), pp. 320-23. USA. Gov, 2011. Vitamin D. Online Available at HYPERLINK http//ods. od. nih. ov/factsheets/VitaminD-HealthProfessional/ http//ods. od. nih. gov/factsheets/VitaminD-HealthProfessional/ Accessed 13 May 2011. Pictures/Figures http//samedical. blogspot. com/2010/07/contraction-of-skeletal-muscle. html (Figure 6. 1/6. 2/6. 3/6. 4/6. 5) http//i. acdn. us/image/A2868/286833/300_286833. jpg ( Figure 7. 1) http//www. mindfiesta. com/images/article/Respiration_clip_image001. gif (Figure 7. 2) 1 http//www. gpnotebook. co. uk/simplepage. cfm? ID=-1979318262&linkID=32590& wee=no 2 Per day of both supplements. 3 expose habitus 3. 1, pictures A & B 4 See figure 3. 1, pictures C & D 5 See figure 3. 1, pictures E, I & F 6 See figure 6. 3 (Page 13) 7 See figure 6. 2 (Page 13) 8 See figure 6. 1 (Page 12) 9 See figure 6. 1 10 See figure 7. 1 11 See figure 7. 2 12 See figure 7. 2 Monday, 22 April 2013 Figure 3. 1 Task 3b A. Skull (Fibrous) B. Ankle Tibiofibular/distal (Synovial/Fibrous) C. First rib/Sternum (Cartilaginous) Hyaline Cartilage D. Vertebrae (Cartilaginous) Fibrocartilage E. Pubis (Cartilaginous) Fibrocartilage F. shoulder blade/Humerus (Synovial) G. Humerus/Ulna Radius (Synovial) Hyaline cartilage H. Intercarpal (Cartilaginous) Plane joint/Nonaxial A C F G D E H B Figure 6. 1 Figure 6. 3 Figure 6. 2 Figure 7. 2 Figure 7. 1